Cognitive dissonance theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cognitive dissonance theory - Essay Example Cognitive dissonance is a term employed to describe the state of having two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously, as people  experience new information in the context of their pre-existing knowledge (Festinger 10). Individuals experience psychological discomfort when they encounter information that challenges their beliefs or behavior. Discussion Cognitive dissonance theory pursues to explain how individuals minimize psychological discomfort and attain emotional equilibrium in the face of conflicting behaviors or beliefs. Cognitive dissonance theory (1957) holds that there are predictable responses that shape individual’s experience of discomfort or dissonance. Festinger advanced that if the new events or information support the pre-held beliefs, then the individual feels supported as the fresh stimuli is in harmony with the individual’s prior knowledge, referred to as a state of consonance. Individuals may accept the information as accurate but decline to ma ke changes; individuals may also accept the information as accurate and make appropriate changes (Festinger 12). Similarly, individuals may attack the messenger as incredible, or rationalize the information in a manner that relieves the discomfort. The theory of cognitive dissonance in communication purposes that a communicator carries around a wealthy assortment of cognitive elements such as attitudes, knowledge, perceptions, and behaviors. Cognitions, in this case, detail bits of knowledge in their simplest form pertaining variety of thoughts, facts, attitudes, behaviors, perceptions, emotions, and values. Thus, people experience the pressure to change when undertaking things that they know are uncomfortable for them. What is consonant or dissonant for one individual may not necessarily be the case for another person. This hinges fundamentally on what is consistent or inconsistent within an individual’s psychological system. The cognitive elements that people hold act as an interrelated system whereby every element (cognitions) relate to one another in three ways; null or irrelevant, consistent or consonant, and dissonant/inconsistent relationship (Festinger 14). Cognitive system in this case represents a multifaceted interrelating set of beliefs, values, and attitudes that influence and affect behavior. When dissonance occurs, individuals may change their behavior, justify their behavior by altering the conflicting cognition, or justify their behavior by adding fresh cognitions. Festinger noted that the experience of dissonance hinges on three factors; the number of consonant elements, the number of dissonant elements, and the significance of each element (Perry 154). A significant dissonant belief  results to a considerable cognitive dissonant compared to a less significant dissonant belief. Dissonance produces a tension or stress, which in turn creates pressure to change whereby the higher the dissonance, the higher the pressure to change. Tensio n reduction is automatically pursued by altering one’s evaluations by a certain degree. An individual opts to downplay the other so as to assure him/herself. In instances where there is dissonance, individuals attempt to minimize it, besides tending to avoid circumstances that cause additional dissonance. Leon Festinger (1919-1990) Leon Festinger was a social psychologist who  advanced that individuals often experience a distressing mental state when they undertake things that contradict their opinions, or what they know. The

Growing afraid Essay Example for Free

Growing afraid Essay Pip describes the afternoon as being raw, which describes the bitterness of the weather, the weather is almost attacking Pip. The graveyard can be described as very old because overgrown with nettles lays a churchyard, which is uncared for and in an instant it could just crumble away. Pip again adds significant words, as he repeats all of the names on the gravestones, Alexander, Bartholomew, Abraham, Tobias and Roger that have died in this harsh place, Pip reads it as if it were a list with so many people there, who have been there for a long period of time. Dark, flat, wilderness beyond the churchyard again explains the lack of community and the Isolation around the area. Dickens personifies wind as the wind was rushing, as if it were rushing to get Pip who was at the time a small bundle of shivers growing afraid. The marshlands had an effect not only on Pip, but the convict also, the convict had been smothered in mud and lamed by stones and cut by flints, and stung by nettles and torn by briars, showing he had escaped for a long time and had spent most of his time hiding in the marshlands. As the convict roughly treats Pip, he tilts him over, gradually down to the floor, he gives Pip a greater sense of helplessness and danger which adds to the atmosphere significantly. Toward the end of the chapter, a sad atmosphere is created, as the convict hugged his shuddering body in both arms clasping himself as if to hold himself together. The convict limps toward the low church wall producing an image of one who is close to death. Pip creates another childish imagination but this one describes the dead rising up stretching up cautiously out of their graves, showing how much fear he had in him at the time. The marshes are depicted as just a long black horizontal line with the sky being just like a row of long angry red lines and dense black lines intermixed, describing the darkness, and anger in Pips world. Charles Dickens leaves you with eerie images of death, of a limping man, as if he were a pirate come to life and come down and going back to hook himself up again. We are introduced to Miss Havisham first as an immensely rich and grim lady, a notorious woman who lived in a large house that was heavily barricaded against robbers. She is described as living a life of seclusion which leads us to believe that she is isolated, miserable and depressed. Pip describes her as being the strangest lady he had ever seen. She was dressed in rich materials, satins, lace and silks, all that are symbols of wealth. She had a long white veil dependent from her hair which makes us believe that she is a bit odd wearing bridal wear for no apparent reason. Her hair was white which symbolizes that she is quite old. Another symbol of wealth is created because she had some bright jewels sparkling around her neck. Pip states that the bride within the bridal dress had withered like the dress which is another clue to her being quite old. We are given another unhealthy image of Miss Havisham, of her dying, the book reflects this by stating that there was no brightness left but the brightness of her sunken eyes and her figure had hung loose and had shrunk to skin and bone. She states that she had never seen the sun since she was born, this makes the reader feel that she is again isolated and hiding away from life outside. She is also a cold-hearted person, because she says that her heart was broken with an eager look on her face. We learn that she despises adults, and that she acts like a child, the novel portrays this by stating that she has sick fancies and she orders Pip with an impatient movement of the hand to play. When Estella came to play with Pip, Miss Havisham says to Estella that she can break Pips heart, this indicates that Miss Havisham has set out to seek revenge on men, and that is one of the reasons why she brought Pip to her house. There is a sense that life has ceased for Miss Havisham, the book shows this by stating that her silk stocking once white, now yellow had been trodden ragged. Pip says that the frillings and trimmings on her bridal dress looked like earthy paper which describes it as being fragile, like Miss Havisham herself. After Pip had finished playing cards with Estella, Miss Havisham states You shall go home soon, Play the game out this illustrates to the reader that she is depressed and emotionally hurt, and is not to used to the company of others, so she sends him away. She had an appearance of dropped body and soul, within and without, under the weight of a crushing blow which leads us to believe that the marriage which didnt take place, has caused her to drop her body and drop her soul. Miss Havisham once again thinks highly of herself, acting as if she owns Pip, she expresses this by stating When shall I have you here again? . We also learn that she is a misguided woman because she says she doesnt know anything about the days of the week, or the weeks of the year. We first learn that Estella is selfish and speaks in an scornful manner to anyone she isnt familiar with, the evidence of this is that after Pip politely said that she could go in first, she replied by saying Dont be ridiculous boy; I am not going in and she also left Pip in the dark by taking the candle with her. When Pip called her name out to play with him, she didnt come straight away, she took her time, deliberately trying to be awkward. When Miss Havisham tried the jewel on Estella, she obviously had intentions for her to get married. Estella thinks she is better than Pip, the evidence of this is that when she was ordered by Miss Havisham to play with Pip, she replied With this boy! Why he is a common labouring boy! . When Estella asked Pip what games he played, she asked it in the greatest disdain which makes us believe she is strict and again scornful and looks down on lower classes. Estella is used as a weapon, a heartbreaker by Miss Havisham, who as we know wants to treat men as she was treated, Miss havisham illustrates this by stating beggar him to Estella. Estella has no respect for Pip and thinks highly of herself and no one else, the evidence of this is that she says, he calls the knaves, jacks this boy! and what coarse hands he has. This leaves an effect on Pip as he becomes ashamed of his hands. She was watching Pip creating tension, trying to make him do wrong, so that she could insult him more on his faults. Pip tells us this by stating she was lying in wait for me to do wrong; and she denounced me for a stupid, clumsy labouring boy As Pip was whispering to Miss Havisham, even though she wasnt saying anything, Estella was making Pip say nice things about her with her eyes, the evidence of this is that she was looking at Pip with look of supreme aversion. As the game between Pip and Estella finished, Estella threw all of the cards down as if she despised them for having been won of Pip, this shows that Estella is spiteful, treats Pip disdainfully and she is very proud. Estella was to told feed Pip, so she put the food down on the ground without looking at Pip as if Pip was a dog in disgrace, this shows that Estella again thinks Pip as being lower class and she has contempt for Pip. Estella had made Pip cry, she looked at him with quick delight as being the cause of the tears, this proves she has no feelings and is satisfied for making him cry, this makes her not a likeable character at all. The first Impressions of Miss Havisham`s house is that it is a huge house filled with mystery, dismal house, barricaded against robbers which reflects the owners feelings. The house can furthermore be described as bleak and nervous for anyone who approaches it, with its great front entrance having two chains across it. It is a dark, gloomy place, with a sense of bad experiences. The text tells us this by stating, the passages were all dark and still it was dark, and only the candle lighted us. Miss Havisham`s room was also dark, she obviously prefers darkness, and all of the candles represent the light in the room, the evidence of this is that a pretty large room, well lighted with candles and no glimpse of daylight was to be seen in it. There is a sense of chaos in the room as everything is untidy, dresses and half-packed trunks were scattered about also Miss Havisham only had one shoe on. Everything was left as it was years ago, all confusedly heaped about the looking glass. Pip relates Miss Havisham to a waxwork he had once seen, with her skin sallow. He also makes a reference to death by describing a skeleton in the ashes of a rich dress. Miss Havisham is almost a ghost in her own house, the evidence of this is that waxwork and skeleton seemed to have dark eyes that moved. All of the watches and clocks in her room had stopped at twenty minutes to nine, which is deliberate and could be linked with her marriage that didnt take place. Pip is made to feel vulnerable, he has no choice but to do what Miss Havisham says, this is because he had the desperate idea of starting round the room meaning that he had to embarrass himself in front of Miss Havisham. She asked Pip if he was sullen and obstinate, he is obviously very misunderstood. Miss Havisham becomes frustrated with him and pitiful for him, the book expresses this by stating So new to him So old to me So melancholy to both of us! Miss Havisham again makes Pip feel discomfort as he is made to shout out Estella in a dark and mysterious passage of an un-known house again he is made to embarrass himself. Another sense that life has seized for Miss Havisham is that there are pale, decayed objects which also creates a deathly and unsettling atmosphere. Pip also describes her clothes as grave-clothes and her long veil looking like a shroud both of which are linked with a corpse. As Pip leaves Miss Havisham`s house, he states that the rush of daylight quite confounded him, this is another clue that the house is a very dark place. Toward the end of the chapter, we feel pity for Pip, because Estella treats him so badly, but he is strong because he refuses to cry in the presence of her, even though his feelings are bitter. This also shows that he wishes he had come from a family who were more of an upper class, than the family he was brought up with, because then maybe Estella would have treated him better.

Reaction Time And Energy Drinks

Reaction Time And Energy Drinks This extended essay is an investigation into reaction times in males and females and how they were affected by Red Bull. The research question was How significant is the reduction in reaction time due to drinking Red Bull, in males as compared to females between the ages of 16-17. To answer this, a simple experiment was carried out to obtain the necessary data. The ruler drop test was conducted using a group of 20 subjects (10 male and 10 female). The reaction times of the subjects before and after drinking Red Bull were then calculated using the results from the ruler drop test and the formula t = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡(2d /a). The mean data was then analysed using the T-Test to see how significant the difference in reaction time was before and after drinking Red Bull. This revealed that even though reaction times in males reduced after consumption of Red Bull, the reduction was not significant. Female subjects showed greater decreases in reaction time after drinking Red Bull even though on average their reaction times were slower than male reaction time. The T-Test showed that in females there was a significant difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull. Finally the mean reductions in reaction time for both males and females were compared using the T-test, which revealed that there was a significant difference in male and female reductions in reaction time. This leads to the conclusion that between the ages of 16- 17, Red Bull only significantly reduces reaction time in females and not in males. Introduction Research Question How significant is the reduction in reaction time due to intake of Red Bull, in males as compared to females between the ages of 16-17. It gives you wings this is the slogan for Red Bull, a popular energy drink. The slogan suggests that Red Bull improves ones overall performance. Reaction time is one of the physical attributes affected by Red Bull. I wanted to investigate Red Bulls effect on reaction time and evaluate whether Red Bull really does give you wings. Reaction time is the time taken to respond to any given stimulus. The better the reaction time, the less it is. Fast reactions are useful in many situations, for instance avoiding another car whilst driving, catching a falling glass and even in sport. Previous research into reaction time has found that Males and females generally have different reaction times with females unfortunately having slower average times. (Der and Deary, 2006). Energy Drinks are beverages that have a boosting or stimulating effect. They are often advertised as performance enhancing, with improvements in alertness and reaction time. Red Bull is probably the most prominent energy drink. The active ingredients in Red Bull include: Glucose, Taurine, Glucuronolacton, Inosital, Niacin, D-Pantothenol (Vitamin B5), Pyridoxine HCL (Vitamin B6), Vitamin B12 and Caffeine. (Further details in appendix ii.). These chemicals affect the bodys metabolic functions so that overall performance is enhanced. My approach was experimental in which the Ruler Drop Test (Coach, 1997) was used. Hypothesis I hypothesise that Red Bull will cause a decrease in reaction time in all subjects. This is due to the ingredients contained in the drink. Taurine and caffeine are the two ingredients that affect the speed of reaction most. Taurine improves nerve transmission; this means that movements made will be faster. Caffeine boosts adrenaline levels which makes one more alert and therefore more likely to respond faster. Thus, I expect reaction time to decrease in all subjects. I also hypothesise that the improvements in reaction time will be more significant in females as they generally have a smaller body mass meaning that the active ingredients in Red Bull will have more of an effect. Experiment Test Subject Selection It was important to make sure that the results from the experiment were as reliable as possible. To do this I had to choose test subjects (participants in the experiment) who were similar in age, athleticism and how frequently they take energy drinks. I decided to use subjects within the age range of 16-17 as this is the age range with the most people in my school and therefore there was a larger test subject range. I had to keep the ages similar because age was found to have an effect on reaction time. (Gorus et al., 2008) Generally reaction time decreases with age until a certain point where it begins to increase again. I wanted subjects who were similar in athleticism because people who are more athletic are more likely to have quicker reaction times than non-athletic people. (Levitt and Gutin., 1971) I also needed subjects who didnt take Red Bull as frequently. It was assumed that people who take energy drinks frequently may develop resistance to its effects. A questionnaire was used to identify the subjects that fit in with these criteria. It was given to 40 people out of whom 10 males and 10 females were selected using random sampling. Preparation of Subjects The test subjects had to be prepared before the experiment to ascertain that it was in fact the Red Bull that was affecting the subjects reaction time and not any other food. The Red Bull was administered an hour after break time. It was assumed that by this time all food (if any) would have been digested. This was important because the Red Bull has to be the only substance ingested prior to the experiment to make sure that the results obtained are from the effects of Red Bull and not any other food substance. Testing took place 10 minutes after consumption to give the active ingredients in the Red Bull enough time to be assimilated. Procedure The Ruler Drop Test was carried out using the following method. A ruler was held so that it was between the index finger and thumb of the subjects stronger hand. The top of the subjects thumb was kept in line with the zero centimetre line on the ruler. The subject then tried to catch the ruler after it was let go. The distance from the bottom of the ruler to the top of the subjects thumb was recorded. To improve reliability of the results the experiment was repeated again. It would be nearly impossible to manually record the time taken for someone to catch a dropped ruler because this happens very quickly. So to calculate the time taken (and thus reaction time) the following formula was used. t = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡(2d /a) This was derived from: d = vt +  ½at ² [11] d is Distance measured in (cm) v is Initial velocity which is zero a is Acceleration due to gravity this a constant value of 981cm/s ² t is Time measured in seconds (s) Data Collection The tables below show the results from the ruler drop test conducted on 9.7.2010. It shows the distances that the ruler travelled before it was caught by the subjects. The results before and after drinking Red Bull were recorded. The experiment was repeated twice to improve the reliability of the results. Trial 1 Trial 2 Males Females Males Females Subject number Distance Before Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance After Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance Before Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance After Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance Before Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance After Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) Distance Before Drinking Red Bull +/-0.05 (cm) 1 16 13 16 9 9 6 12 2 15 14 15 17 12 8 9 3 5 9 30 17 7 5 17 4 8 9 22 11 8 5 13 5 15 11 18 12 6 7 15 6 12 7 19 19 10 7 11 7 6 7 15 11 9 8 16 8 14 8 17 10 11 6 10 9 7 6 14 12 5 8 12 10 14 17 14 10 13 15 15 Data Processing The raw data was processed to give the tables below. The values in red show anomalies, that is data that is erroneous and/or unexpected, in this case distances increasing after taking Red Bull and Reaction Time increasing after taking Red Bull. These values could be generated by an error in the data collection or an error in the experiment. They are therefore ignored when considering the significance. The tables below show the calculated reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull. Reaction times were calculated using the distances obtained from the experiments which were then substituted into the formula. t = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡(2d /a). The tables also show the difference in reaction time which is the reaction time after drinking Red Bull, subtracted by the reaction time before drinking Red Bull. This was done so that that the improvement in reaction time can be seen. Table (1.a) shows the data from the 1st repeat and table (1.b) shows data from the 2nd repeat and Table (2) shows the mean of both repeats. In this table, most of the errors disappear as the mean uses the data from both sets of repeats to show an average or trend. Examples: Calculating Reaction Time A subject catches the ruler at 16.0 cm without drinking Red Bull. The subject then catches the ruler at 13.0 cm after drinking Red Bull. The time taken for the subject to catch the ruler is worked out like this. Distance before taking Red Bull= 16.0 cm Formula: t = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡(2d /a) So 216.0= 32 32/981= 0.03262 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ 0.03262= 0.18061 Therefore it took the subject 0.18061 seconds to catch the ruler before drinking Red Bull. Distance after taking Red Bull=13.0 cm 213.0= 26 26/981= 0.02650 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡0.02650= 0.16280 Therefore it took the subject 0.16280 seconds to catch the ruler after drinking Red Bull. Calculating Difference The subjects Reaction time before drinking Red Bull is 0.18061 seconds and the subjects reaction time after drinking Red Bull is 0.16280 seconds. To find the difference the subjects reaction time after drinking Red Bull is subtracted by the Reaction time before drinking Red Bull to give: -0.01781. In this example, the calculated difference in reaction time is negative. This shows that after drinking Red Bull, the subjects reaction time improved by -0.01781 seconds. Calculating the Mean In the second repeat of the experiment the subject catches the ruler at 9 cm before drinking Red Bull and then catches the ruler at 6cm after drinking Red Bull. The subject therefore gets these reaction times: Before drinking Red Bull: 0.13546 sseconds. After drinking Red Bull: 0.11060 seconds. The mean for reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull can be calculated, using the values from the 1st and 2nd repeats of the experiment. Mean reaction time before drinking Red Bull: 0.18061 + 0.13546= 0.31607 0.31607 / 2= 0.158035 seconds Mean reaction time after drinking Red Bull: 0.13546 + 0.11060= 0.24606 0.24606 / 2= 0.12303 seconds The mean shows a more reliable value from both repeats. Table (1.a): Table of results from the first trial of the experiment Trial 1 Males Females Subject number Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) Difference In Reaction Time +/- (s) Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) Difference In Reaction Time (s) 1 0.0058 0.0052 -0.00057 0.18061 0.13546 -0.04515 2 0.0056 0.0054 -0.00019 0.17487 0.18617 0.01129 3 0.0032 0.0043 0.0011 0.24731 0.18617 -0.06114 4 0.0041 0.0043 0.00025 0.21178 0.14975 -0.06203 5 0.0056 0.0048 -0.0008 0.19157 0.15641 -0.03515 6 0.005 0.0038 -0.00118 0.19681 0.19681 0 7 0.0035 0.0038 0.00028 0.17487 0.14975 -0.02512 8 0.0054 0.0041 -0.00132 0.18617 0.14278 -0.04338 9 0.0038 0.0035 -0.00028 0.16894 0.15641 -0.01253 10 0.0054 0.0059 0.00055 0.16894 0.14278 -0.02616 Table (1.b): Table of results from the first trial of the experiment Trial 2 Males Female Subject number Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) Difference In Reaction Time (s) Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) Difference In Reaction Time (s) 1 0.13546 0.1106 -0.02486 0.15641 0.17487 0.01846 2 0.15641 0.12771 -0.0287 0.13546 0.11946 -0.016 3 0.11946 0.10096 -0.0185 0.18617 0.16894 -0.01722 4 0.12771 0.10096 -0.02675 0.1628 0.13546 -0.02734 5 0.1106 0.11946 0.00886 0.17487 0.1628 -0.01208 6 0.14278 0.11946 -0.02332 0.14975 0.11946 -0.03029 7 0.13546 0.12771 -0.00775 0.18061 0.17487 -0.00574 8 0.14975 0.1106 -0.03915 0.14278 0.13546 -0.00733 9 0.10096 0.12771 0.02675 0.15641 0.14975 -0.00666 10 0.1628 0.17487 0.01208 0.17487 0.1628 -0.01208 Table (2): Table of mean values from trial 1 and trial 2 Trial 1 + Trial 2 2 Males Females Subject number Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) Difference In Reaction Time (s) Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull (s) Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull (s) 1 0.0051 0.0044 -0.00065 0.16894 0.15641 2 0.0053 0.0048 -0.00052 0.15641 0.15641 3 0.0035 0.0038 0.00028 0.21888 0.17777 4 0.0041 0.0038 -0.00026 0.18889 0.14278 5 0.0047 0.0043 -0.00035 0.18341 0.15964 6 0.0048 0.0038 -0.00097 0.17487 0.1628 7 0.0039 0.0039 0 0.17777 0.1628 8 0.0051 0.0038 -0.00128 0.1659 0.13917 9 0.0035 0.0038 0.00028 0.1628 0.15312 10 0.0053 0.0058 0.00047 0.17194 0.15312 Data Analysis The first step in analysing the data is to compare the reaction times of males and females before and after drinking Red Bull separately using the mean values from table 2. This is done below: Graph (1.a): The graph (1.a) shows the comparison of the mean male reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull. The graph shows that generally the blue bar (Male Reaction Time before Drinking Red Bull) is higher than the red bar (Male Reaction Time After Drinking Red Bull) This suggests that Red Bull generally had the effect of reducing reaction time in males. Red Bull contains Taurine (see appendix ii) Taurine speeds up neural transmission, so nerve impulses are passed along through the nervous system much faster. This means that the time taken for the subjects hand to react to the stimulus (in this case the dropped ruler) is less. Another ingredient that probably affects reaction time most is caffeine. Caffeine blocks adenosine and boosts adrenaline levels. Adrenaline causes the heart rate to increase, the respiratory rate in the lungs to increase and muscle contraction all around the body. These are just some of the effects known as the fight or flight response. The overall effect is that you respond better to stimuli as the body is more alert. T Test The T-Test shows how significant the statistical difference between two values is. The T-Test determines the P-Value. In Biology the difference between the two values is considered statistically significant if the P value is below 0.05 If it is The Null hypothesis is therefore rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull in Males. Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull in males. For this T-Test I compared the mean values of reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull for males. I got a P-Value of 0.06626028. This is greater than 0.05 therefore the Null hypothesis has to be accepted. The T-Test suggests that with males, the difference in reaction time after drinking Red Bull is not significant because the P value (0.06626028) is greater than the standard critical value (0.05). Graph (1.b) The graph (1.b) shows the comparison of the mean female reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull. Again, the graph shows that generally the blue bar (Female Reaction Time after Drinking Red Bull) is higher than the red bar (Female Reaction Time Before Drinking Red Bull) This suggests that Red Bull generally had the effect of decreasing reaction time in females. This decrease is again due to the ingredients contained in Red Bull. Both taurine and caffeine affect the subjects system so that the speed of movement and response in increased. T-Test Another T-Test is carried out to find out how significant the difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull in females is. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull in Males. Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant difference in reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull in males. For this T-Test I compared the mean values of reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull for females. I got a P-Value of 0.00068587. This is less than 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. The T-Test suggests that the differences in the female reaction time before and after drinking Red Bull are very significant as the P value (0.00068587) is far below the standard critical value of 0.05. The final step in analyzing the data is to compare male and female change in reaction times. Graph (2) Graph (2) shows the Comparison of Male and Female reduction in reaction time. The pink plot points show the mean female difference in reaction time; whilst the blue plot points show the mean male difference in reaction time. The graph shows that generally mean male reduction in reaction times were much lower than the mean female reduction in reaction time. This suggests that females are affected more by Red Bull. Another observation that can be made from the graph also shows that the female data is more varied than the male data. However the data that was collected was too small to make any definite conclusions. T-Test A T-Test was carried out to find out how significant the difference in mean male and female difference in reaction time. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between mean male and female difference in reaction time. Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between mean male and female difference in reaction time. In this T-Test I compared the mean values of difference in reaction time for both males and females. I got a P-Value of 0.001571698. This is less than 0.05 therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. The T-Test suggests that there is a big significance in the difference between mean male and mean female difference in reaction times because the P value is much lower than the critical value of 0.05. Conclusion In general, reaction times decreased after drinking Red Bull in both males and females. Males generally had faster times females. However the T-Test shows that in males this difference is not significant whilst in females, it is quite significant. Further calculations showed that there was a significant difference between the reduction of reaction time in males and females. Females generally had greater reductions in reaction time. The data does not support the first hypothesis, which states that reaction time would decrease in all subjects after the consumption of Red Bull, as there were some instances where the reaction times worsened. These anomalies may have been due to error in the method however, and had no overall significance to the experiment as they were ignored. The data supports the final hypothesis, which states that Red Bull would improve reaction time more significantly in females. The results from the investigation show that females had a more significant reduction in reaction time after drinking Red Bull as compared to males. The reason for females being affected more by Red Bull is, Pound for pound females have less water in their bodies than men, so their body parts are more exposed to the active ingredients in Red Bull. This leads to the conclusion that between the ages of 16-17, Red Bull only significantly reduces reaction time in females and not in males. Evaluation There were some aspects of the experimental method that may have reduced the reliability of the data. When the ruler drop test was performed for the second time the subjects instead of improving reaction time as a result of drinking Red Bull may have naturally improved their reaction time through practice. Also the subjects knew that they were drinking Red Bull and that Red Bull is said to improve physical performance including reaction time. This again may have caused them to improve their times naturally through the psychological stimulation. There is no actual proof however that improvement in reaction time was due to practice. It is only a speculation. However if the subjects reaction times were improving as a result of practice then this would affect the data as Red Bull would not be the only factor improving reaction time. The best way to reduce the effect of this factor would be to carry out the experiment only once. This would reduce the reliability of the data as a mean of both experiments not would be possible to calculate but at the same time it would improve the reliability of the data as subjects would not be getting better with practice and it would be only the Red Bull affecting the subjects reaction time. I also could have set up another Ruler Drop Test experiment using a different set of subjects but replacing the Red Bull energy drink with a non energetic drink. The subjects however, would be told that they are having another brand of energy drink. This would test the thought of having an energy drink makes the subject expect to perform better and therefore actually improving their reaction time naturally. A second experiment using the same subjects could then be carried out using but using Red Bull. The results of the second experiment could then be compared with the results from the first experiment to further asses the significance improvement in reaction time due to Red Bull. Error Analysis 30 cm Ruler (cm) Absolute uncertainty +/- 0.05 Percentage Uncertainty % 0.25 Overall Uncertainty % 0.25 Appendix (i) Questionnaire How old are you: ____ 2. How Much Sport do you do? None Wednesday Clubs Only Barely Active Participation 3. Do You Take Energy Drinks Regularly: ______ 4. Are You Willing To Participate in this Experiment_____? Appendix (ii) Active ingredients in Red Bull: Glucose Glucose is a sugar. The body uses glucose in respiration to make energy. C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36ATP Glucose + Oxygen = Water + Carbon Dioxide + Energy. Redbull contains 5.25 g of glucose. Taurine Taurine is an amino acid that is usually made in the body. Each can of Red Bull contains 1000mg of Taurine. Taurine helps move minerals like potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium through the cells. This helps to generate nerve impulses therefore making neural transmission faster. Glucuronolacton Glucuronolacton is a chemical similar to taurine. It affects memory and concentration in the brain. It is known to have effects similar to anti-depressants and stimulants. Inosital Inosital is a chemical that has a mood boosting effect and it maximises the brains uses of a serotonin a chemical that is found in most anti-depressants. Niacin Niacin is a B vitamin that helps in energy formation. It metabolizes energy from fat and carbohydrates. Niacin can help the body use energy by releasing it from food. D-Pantothenol D-Pantothenol is also known as vitamin B5, or Pantothenic acid. It is known to improve mood and boost energy. D-Pantothenol help turn fat into energy and increases metabolism. Pyridoxine HCL Also known as Vitamin B6, Pyridoxine HCL helps red blood cells to form and provides better oxygen utilization. It also help to break down sugar that you have stored in your body to use for energy. Vitamin B12 B12 helps in the formation of red blood cells, for better oxygen utilization. It also help with energy production by breaking down fat and protein. Caffeine Red Bull contains 80.0 milligrams of caffeine which is almost double the amount of all other soft drinks. The caffeine in Red Bull gives you energy by blocking a chemical in your brain called adenosine. Adenosine promotes sleepiness and without it you would not be able to fall asleep. When adenosine is blocked you body releases a boost of adrenaline which wakes you up.

Soil Formation Under Desert Pavements Essay -- Geology Topography Pape

Soil Formation Under Desert Pavements Desert pavements are common landforms in arid regions. They consist of flat or sloping surfaces where stones are closely packed angular or rounded, and generally exhibit low relief (Mabbutt, 1977). Pavements tend to form on both alluvial fan toposequences and on weathering volcanic flow fields in arid regions. Soils are often found under desert pavements and they play an important role in the evolution of pavements (McFadden et. al., 1987). In the past there have been several theories as to the formation pavements and soil development beneath them. Deflation, or the erosion of finer grained particles from a surface, stone concentration by wash erosion and upward displacement of stone due to shrink and swell clay characteristics were at one time believed to be the main factors in the formation of desert pavements (Mabbutt, 1977). However, more recent research has shown that desert pavements are born and maintained at the surface, and that the soil below them is mainly eolian in origin . Slow accretion of eolian dust below the pavement is a process that eventually develops cumulate horizons. Eolian dust in environments where pavements often develop is rich in carbonate salts and clays due to the fact it often originates from nearby playa lake evaporate basins (McFadden et. al., 1987). Soils that form below the pavements over time develop calcic horizons and clay rich structure due to the influx of these eolian fines through the pavement surface. In turn the development of mature or plugged calcic horizons effects the form of the pavement surface because it alters the water drainage infiltration rate and causes pavements to decline. Desert Pavements Desert pavements form in several di... ...cFadden, Leslie D., 1988, Climatic Influences on rates and processes of soil development in Quaternary deposits of Southern California: Geological Society of America Special Paper 216, p. 153-175 Mc Fadden, L. D., Wells, S. G., and Jercinovich, M. J., 1987, Influence of eolian and pedogenic processes on the origin and evolution of desert pavements: Geology, v.15, p. 504-508. Ritter, Process Geomorphology Wells, Stephen G., Dohrenwend, John C., McFadden, Leslie D., Turrin, Brent D., and Mahrer, Kenneth D., 1985, Late Cenezoic evolution on Lava Flow surfaces of the Cima volcanic field, Mojave Desert, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 96, p. 1518-1529. Wells, Stephen. G., and Mc Fadden, Leslie D., 1995, Cosmogenic 3He surface-exposure dating of stone pavements: Implications for landscape evolution in deserts: Geology, v. 23, p. 613-16.

Case Analysis ESRI

However, the software that SERIES provides is for a much more complex set of operations than merely looking up driving directions. In fact the software and services the company provides in the geographical information systems market, is so tailored to individual companies and firm that it cannot be catalogued with web based GIS such as Google Maps or Map Quest. Yes most of these systems now point out a great deal of geographical information, but is for the more common user. SERIES produces 40 products and related services for 40 different industries.As such, the company corner specific niche of the geographical information systems market that other more general web based systems would not be able to do without some extensive restructuring. Are the apparent problems the real problems or only symptoms of the real problems? The problem, if it can be called one is based on the human need to know about their world. Now, instead of looking at a paper map, the average consumer can find a we alth of information about literally any location, any. Here in the world. This was merely a logical progression of web based technology. In my analysis I found no problems with SERIES. The company has a strong foundation. It is not losing market share do to perceived competition, and its business strategy is sound. What are the characteristics of the environment in which the company operates? The characteristics of the company are of a firm that caters to a specific demographic that requires use of their products.It has only a few competitors, and is widely respected by competitor and customer alike What are the characteristics of the industry that the company is in and how is the industry changing over time? GIS is computer software that combines geographic location with point of interest information. This is done by producing electronic maps that have layers of information stacked upon each other to include visualization (ad graphics) with spatial analysis (combination of data and visualized information.The industry itself is comprised of large government agencies, utility companies, and large retail businesses such as store chains. What is the firm's strategy, in terms of the five strategy elements, for competing in this context? Arenas: Where will we be active? SERIES being a company that was started to field a specific variety of products or a specific number of industries that require complex geological information systems has chosen to remain in this niche market and not expand further.Vehicles: how will we get there? SERIES has chosen to arrive at their chosen destination by using sound financial management, concentration on R, customer relations, and choosing to not go public. Differentiators: How will we win in the marketplace? SERIES has chosen to differentiate itself by upgrading their products periodically, add touches requested by customers and by actually using information provided by customer surveys. Staging and Spacing: What will be our speed and sequence of moves?Through strategic planning, SERIES has shown that remaining in a niche market allows it to cater to the speed of requirement versus the speed of competition. Therefore, a great deal more time can be can be concentrated on R, customer relations, and company development. Economic logic: How will we obtain our returns? Because the company has chosen to remain private, all return on investment can be invested back into the company. There are no outlying expenses other than what the company itself generates. What are possible solutions to identified problems?The only solution was stated by the company's founder. Although not a requirement, SERIES could become more marketable by developing web based applications to make their information more accessible. Are there any possible problems with your suggested recommendations? What contingencies need to be accommodated? By making information more accessible, it also makes the company more public, which is not something t he company leadership wishes to do. Furthermore, it pushes the company into a broader market which inevitably creates more competition.

Ugly or Beautiful

Ugly or Beautiful? It is well known that beauty and ugliness are opposites. If that is so, how can art be ugly and beautiful at the same time? Some pieces of art are ugly to the eyes but beautiful mind. The Venus of Willendorf (Venus of Willendorf: 1-3) is an example of such. It is a small figure of a large woman. She has very large breast with skinny little arms rested on top of them. Her breast lay on her even larger stomach, which hangs down to just above her pubic area.Her pubic area and belly button are well defined but there is only small evidence of nipples. Starting at her wide hips her thighs touch and press together down to the knees, and then become much smaller than the rest of her. Her head is completely wrapped with what seem to be braids, with no face visible. This figure, at first glance, and second, isn’t one of beauty. After all, it is a rather plump nude woman with no face. But, looking closer and noticing where the emphasis lies gives it a different look.Th e woman’s breasts, stomach, and pubic area grab the most attention; all three of these being attributes of a woman’s fertility. It seems as though they are being used to show a celebration of her fertility and ability to have strong children like her. Looking deeper into this figure it can go from something ugly to something special. Another example would be Punitavati (Punitavati/Karaikkal Ammaiyar: Intro 8). Punitavati is a bronze sculpture of a rather grotesque woman. She is very lanky.She sits with her bony legs crossed and spread, her arms in front of her holding a small musical instrument. She has the face of a crone, with large high raised eyebrows, a long protruding nose, and a fang-toothed smile. Her entire body is bone skinny, except for a slight bulge in her stomach. This sculpture was made to symbolize her immense inner beauty. According to legend, this now hag-like woman was once stunning. Her husband had left her because she gave away one of his mangoes t o a beggar. She then turned her god, the Hindu Shiva, offering up her beauty.Shiva accepted, turning her into this figure. Her appalling appearance is used to show the beauty of her generosity and sacrifice. One other would be Rebellious Silence (Shirin Neshat, Rebellious Silence 20-33). This is a photograph of an Iranian woman, she is wearing a traditional Iranian women’s wardrobe, except her face is completely uncovered. Calligraphy is written across her entire face besides her eyes, and straight through the middle of her face she is holding up a gun barrel. This image wouldn’t strike most as an object of â€Å"beauty†.It does grab your attention though. It makes you stare at the woman who is staring so intensely back at you. She wants to make her presence known and speak out in a country that doesn’t see women as equal. She is a strong and defiant woman. The longer you hold her gaze the more you can see the beauty in her braveness. All art may not be p leasing to look at, but a lot of the time there something deeper and more appealing in the meaning. Sometimes you must search to find the beauty of something ugly.